Abstract
Background
Objectives
Design
Participants/setting
Exposure and outcome measures
Statistical analyses
Results
Conclusions
Keywords
Methods
Description of Study Participants
Medical History and Anthropometric Assessment
Fecal Sample Collection Methods
Dietary Quality Assessment
- Di Noia J.
- Monica D.
- Cullen K.W.
- Perez-Escamilla R.
- Gray H.L.
- Sikorskii A.
Microbial Sequencing and Taxonomy Assignation
SFCA Analysis
Bioinformatics and Statistical Analyses
Results
Characteristic | Result |
---|---|
n (%) | |
Women | 14 (70) |
Body mass index categories | |
Healthy | 5 (25) |
Overweight | 8 (40) |
Obese class I | 5 (25) |
Obese class II | 2 (10) |
Smoking status, current (%) | 2 (10) |
Self-reported type 2 diabetes, yes (%) | 9 (45) |
Self-reported cardiovascular disease, yes (%) | 20 (100) |
Place of birth | |
Dominican Republic | 15 (75) |
Puerto Rico | 2 (10) |
Other Caribbean Island | 3 (15) |
Education | |
Fifth-eighth grade | 5 (25) |
Ninth-12th grade or GED | 1 (5) |
Some college or bachelor’s degree | 3 (15) |
Some graduate school | 11 (55) |
Laxative use in the past 30 d | |
Yes | 4 (20) |
No | 15 (75) |
Don’t know | 1 (5) |
mean±standard deviation | |
Age (y) | 62.7±8.1 (range: 51-76) |
Height (cm) | 161.5±12.2 |
Weight (kg) | 75.2±13.4 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 28.9±4.9 |
Short-chain fatty acid fecal content b (μg/g)Not all fatty acids present in feces are listed. The three short chain fatty acids (SCFA) hypothesized to differ by diet quality are shown. SCFA are shown as μg/g. To convert μg/g acetic acid to nmol/g, multiply μg/g by 60.051ˆ1e-3. To convert μg/g butyrtic acid to nmol/g, multiply μg/g by 74.079ˆ1e-3. To convert μg/g propionic acid to nmol/g, multiply μg/g by 88.1051ˆ1e-3. | |
Acetate | 2,164±4,137 |
Butyrate | 901±1,678 |
Propionate | 513±637 |
Physical activity (MET hours per week) | 14±13 |
Total energy intake (kcal/d) | 1,651±635 |
% energy from carbohydrates | 50.3±8.9 |
% energy from fat | 28.7±6.1 |
% energy from protein | 19.6±5.3 |
Dietary protein (g/d) | 77±28 |
Dietary carbohydrate (g/d) | 214±95 |
Dietary total fiber (g/d) | 20±9 |
Dietary soluble fiber (g/d) | 7±3 |
Dietary insoluble fiber (g/d) | 14±7 |
Dietary pectins (g/d) | 4±3 |
Total sugars (g/d) | 84±52 |
Total fat (g/d) | 55±27 |
Healthy Eating Index-2015 | 67±12 |
Mediterranean Diet score | 4±2 |
Alcohol intake (g/d) | 4±10 |
Associations of Individual Dietary Nutrients, Diet Scores, and Nutrient Variables with Gut Microbiome Diversity
Dietary (continuous) variables | Shannon diversity index | Faith PD | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Spearman correlation | P value | Spearman correlation | P value | |
Total PUFA (g/d) | –0.564 | 0.01 | –0.478 | 0.03 |
Calories from PUFA | –0.550 | 0.01 | –0.502 | 0.02 |
18:2 Total linoleic acid (g/d) | –0.555 | 0.01 | –0.526 | 0.02 |
Total dietary fiber (g/d) | –0.490 | 0.03 | –0.424 | 0.06 |
Insoluble dietary fiber (g/d) | –0.480 | 0.03 | –0.555 | 0.01 |
Pectins (g/d) | –0.460 | 0.04 | –0.048 | 0.84 |
Vegetable protein (g/d) | –0.275 | 0.24 | –0.559 | 0.01 |
Healthy Eating Index-2015 components | ||||
Sodium | –0.556 | 0.01 | –0.488 | 0.03 |
Total Healthy Eating Index-2015 score | –0.559 | 0.01 | –0.184 | 0.44 |
Dietary (categorical) variables | Shannon index group significance | Faith PD group significance | ||
Kruskal-Wallis H test P value | Kruskal-Wallis H test P value | |||
Mediterranean Diet components | ||||
Vegetable | 0.07 | 0.01 |
Dietary (continuous) variables | Weighted UniFrac | Unweighted UniFrac | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Spearman correlation | P value | Spearman correlation | P value | |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 0.14 | 0.08 | –0.08 | 0.44 |
18:3 Total linolenic acid (g/d) | 0.19 | 0.06 | –0.15 | 0.27 |
18:3 Alpha-linolenic acid (g/d) | 0.19 | 0.04 | –0.15 | 0.26 |
Total n-3 fatty acid (g/d) | 0.15 | 0.08 | –0.18 | 0.16 |
Total carbohydrate (g/d) | 0.15 | 0.07 | –0.01 | 0.94 |
Total sugars (g/d) | 0.21 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.52 |
Soluble dietary fiber (g/d) | 0.02 | 0.79 | 0.22 | 0.07 |
Pectins (g/d) | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.91 |
Healthy Eating Index-2015 components | ||||
Greens and beans | 0.04 | 0.68 | –0.21 | 0.08 |
Seafood and plant proteins | 0.21 | 0.05 | –0.06 | 0.69 |
Whole grains | –0.01 | 0.97 | 0.25 | 0.03 |
Dietary (categorical) variables | Weighted UniFrac | Unweighted UniFrac | ||
Pseudo-F | P value | Pseudo-F | P value | |
Mediterranean Diet components | ||||
Vegetables | 1.22 | 0.24 | 1.44 | 0.07 |
Whole grains | 2.75 | 0.09 | 1.01 | 0.46 |
Variable | Determinant OTU | gneiss, FDR corrected P value | Spearman correlation | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total n-3 fatty acids | Prevotella copri (OTU 456) | 0.01 | 0.45 | 0.04 |
18:3 Total linolenic acid | Prevotella copri (OTU 456) | 0.01 | 0.48 | 0.03 |
18:3 Alpha-linolenic acid | Prevotella copri (OTU 456) | 0.01 | 0.47 | 0.03 |
Pectins | Enterobacteriaceae (OTU 121) | 0.02 | 0.53 | 0.01 |
Soluble fiber | Parabacteroides gordonii (OTU 221) | 0.01 | 0.80 | 0.05 |
HEI-2015 total score | Clostridiales (OTU 196) | 0.006 | –0.56 | 0.01 |
Clostridiales (OTU 116) | 0.006 | –0.25 | 0.29 |
Differences in Dietary Intakes by Gut Microbiome Clusters

Associations of Diet with SCFA Fecal Content
Associations of Laxative Use, BMI, and Self-Reported Diabetes with the Gut Microbiome


Discussion
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Author Contributions
Supplementary Materials
Continuous variables | Shannon diversity index | Faith PD | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Spearman correlation | P value | Spearman correlation | P value | |
Anthropometric variables | ||||
Age | –0.03 | 0.92 | –0.34 | 0.14 |
Body mass index | –0.01 | 0.99 | –0.25 | 0.29 |
Weight (kg) | 0.03 | 0.89 | –0.31 | 0.19 |
Dietary variables | ||||
Total energy intake (kcal/d) | –0.31 | 0.19 | –0.36 | 0.13 |
Total protein (g/d) | –0.19 | 0.43 | –0.32 | 0.17 |
Animal protein (g/d) | –0.06 | 0.80 | 0.05 | 0.82 |
Vegetable protein (g/d) | –0.27 | 0.24 | –0.56 | 0.01 |
Total carbohydrate (g/d) | –0.33 | 0.15 | –0.20 | 0.41 |
Total sugars (g/d) | –0.32 | 0.17 | –0.06 | 0.79 |
Total dietary fiber (g/d) | –0.49 | 0.03 | –0.42 | 0.06 |
Soluble dietary fiber (g/d) | –0.35 | 0.13 | –0.28 | 0.24 |
Insoluble dietary fiber (g/d) | –0.48 | 0.03 | –0.56 | 0.01 |
Pectins (g/d) | –0.46 | 0.04 | –0.05 | 0.84 |
Total fat (g/d) | –0.40 | 0.08 | –0.39 | 0.09 |
Total MUFA (g/d) | –0.26 | 0.27 | –0.37 | 0.10 |
Total PUFA (g/d) | –0.56 | 0.01 | –0.48 | 0.03 |
Total n-3 fatty acid (g/d) | –0.27 | 0.24 | –0.32 | 0.17 |
18:2 total linoleic acid (g/d) | –0.55 | 0.01 | –0.53 | 0.02 |
18:3 total linolenic acid (g/d) | –0.33 | 0.15 | –0.33 | 0.16 |
18:3 alpha-linolenic acid (g/d) | –0.32 | 0.16 | –0.34 | 0.14 |
20:4 arachidonic acid (g/d) | –0.26 | 0.28 | –0.02 | 0.94 |
20:5 eicosapentaenoic acid (g/d) | 0.23 | 0.32 | –0.02 | 0.95 |
22:5 docosapentaenoic acid (g/d) | 0.31 | 0.18 | 0.22 | 0.36 |
22:6 docosahexaenoic acid (g/d) | 0.41 | 0.07 | 0.18 | 0.45 |
Calories from carbohydrate | –0.20 | 0.39 | 0.01 | 0.99 |
Calories from fat | –0.01 | 0.98 | –0.09 | 0.72 |
Calories from protein | 0.29 | 0.21 | 0.12 | 0.62 |
Calories from alcohol | –0.13 | 0.59 | 0.01 | 0.95 |
Calories from MUFA | 0.08 | 0.73 | –0.23 | 0.33 |
Calories from PUFA | –0.55 | 0.01 | –0.50 | 0.02 |
Calories from saturated fat | 0.16 | 0.49 | 0.07 | 0.78 |
Healthy Eating Index-2015 components | ||||
Added sugars | –0.10 | 0.67 | –0.11 | 0.64 |
Dairy | –0.07 | 0.77 | 0.26 | 0.27 |
Fatty acids | –0.05 | 0.83 | –0.20 | 0.39 |
Greens and beans | –0.22 | 0.36 | –0.42 | 0.07 |
Refined grains | –0.30 | 0.20 | 0.05 | 0.83 |
Saturated fats | –0.13 | 0.59 | –0.09 | 0.71 |
Seafood and plant proteins | 0.17 | 0.47 | –0.43 | 0.06 |
Sodium | –0.56 | 0.01 | –0.49 | 0.03 |
Total fruits | –0.31 | 0.18 | 0.33 | 0.15 |
Total protein foods | –0.08 | 0.73 | –0.38 | 0.09 |
Total vegetables | 0.13 | 0.60 | 0.14 | 0.57 |
Whole fruits | –0.21 | 0.35 | 0.32 | 0.17 |
Whole grains | –0.43 | 0.06 | –0.33 | 0.15 |
Total Healthy Eating Index-2015 score | –0.56 | 0.01 | –0.18 | 0.44 |
Mediterranean Diet score | –0.24 | 0.31 | –0.29 | 0.22 |
Categorical variables | Shannon index | Faith PD | ||
Kruskal-Wallis H test P value | Kruskal-Wallis H test P value | |||
Sex | 0.93 | 0.68 | ||
Type 2 diabetes status (y/n) | 0.68 | 0.18 | ||
Mediterranean Diet score components | ||||
Alcohol | 0.64 | 0.57 | ||
Dairy | 0.76 | 0.94 | ||
Fish | 0.94 | 0.76 | ||
Fruit | 0.08 | 0.54 | ||
Meat | 0.55 | 0.59 | ||
Nuts and legumes | 0.88 | 0.94 | ||
Ratio of MUFA to saturated fatty acids | 0.76 | 0.94 | ||
Vegetable | 0.07 | 0.01 | ||
Whole grain | 0.36 | 0.82 |
Dietary (continuous) variables | Weighted UniFrac | Unweighted UniFrac | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Spearman correlation | P value | Spearman correlation | P value | |
Total energy intake (kcal/d) | 0.14 | 0.08 | –0.08 | 0.44 |
Total protein (g/d) | 0.11 | 0.22 | –0.10 | 0.42 |
Animal protein (g/d) | 0.08 | 0.43 | –0.13 | 0.37 |
Vegetable protein (g/d) | –0.07 | 0.49 | 0.10 | 0.47 |
Total carbohydrate (g/d) | 0.15 | 0.07 | –0.01 | 0.94 |
Total sugars (g/d) | 0.21 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.52 |
Total dietary fiber (g/d) | 0.09 | 0.31 | 0.09 | 0.48 |
Insoluble dietary fiber (g/d) | 0.05 | 0.65 | 0.03 | 0.82 |
Soluble dietary fiber (g/d) | 0.02 | 0.79 | 0.22 | 0.07 |
Pectins (g/d) | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.91 |
Total fat (g/d) | 0.08 | 0.47 | –0.09 | 0.53 |
Total MUFA (g/d) | 0.02 | 0.86 | –0.01 | 0.53 |
Total PUFA (g/d) | 0.12 | 0.17 | –0.01 | 0.96 |
Total n-3 fatty acids (g/d) | 0.15 | 0.08 | –0.18 | 0.16 |
18:2 total linoleic acid (g/d) | 0.11 | 0.26 | 0.02 | 0.91 |
18:3 total linolenic acid (g/d) | 0.19 | 0.06 | –0.15 | 0.27 |
18:3 alpha-linolenic acid (g/d) | 0.19 | 0.04 | –0.15 | 0.26 |
20:4 arachidonic acid (g/d) | 0.01 | 0.88 | –0.20 | 0.12 |
20:5 eicosapentaenoic acid (g/d) | –0.07 | 0.52 | –0.17 | 0.18 |
22:5 docosapentaenoic acid (g/d) | –0.05 | 0.61 | –0.13 | 0.38 |
22:6 docosahexaenoic acid (g/d) | –0.08 | 0.42 | –0.19 | 0.15 |
Calories from carbohydrate | –0.12 | 0.17 | –0.05 | 0.66 |
Calories from protein | 0.02 | 0.81 | –0.07 | 0.56 |
Calories from fat | –0.05 | 0.57 | 0.09 | 0.50 |
Calories from MUFA | –0.13 | 0.17 | 0.04 | 0.76 |
Calories from PUFA | 0.10 | 0.19 | 0.09 | 0.40 |
Calories from saturated fat | –0.07 | 0.47 | –0.07 | 0.53 |
Calories from alcohol | 0.01 | 0.93 | –0.01 | 0.95 |
Healthy Eating Index-2015 components | ||||
Added sugars | 0.09 | 0.41 | 0.01 | 0.95 |
Dairy | –0.09 | 0.19 | -0.11 | 0.16 |
Fatty acids | –0.06 | 0.39 | –0.06 | 0.46 |
Greens and beans | 0.04 | 0.68 | –0.21 | 0.08 |
Refined grains | –0.01 | 0.93 | –0.14 | 0.28 |
Saturated fats | –0.01 | 0.88 | –0.03 | 0.76 |
Seafood and plant proteins | 0.21 | 0.05 | –0.06 | 0.69 |
Sodium | –0.04 | 0.64 | 0.07 | 0.42 |
Total fruits | 0.06 | 0.49 | –0.12 | 0.24 |
Total protein foods | 0.13 | 0.29 | 0.01 | 0.97 |
Vegetables | 0.08 | 0.26 | –0.05 | 0.62 |
Whole fruits | –0.12 | 0.20 | –0.21 | 0.14 |
Whole grains | –0.01 | 0.97 | 0.25 | 0.03 |
Total Healthy Eating Index-2015 score | –0.01 | 0.98 | –0.07 | 0.62 |
Mediterranean Diet score | –0.05 | 0.53 | 0.06 | 0.53 |
Dietary (categorical) variables | Weighted UniFrac | Unweighted UniFrac | ||
pseudo-F | P value | pseudo-F | P value | |
Mediterranean Diet score components | ||||
Alcohol | 1.50 | 0.23 | 0.64 | 0.94 |
Dairy | 0.28 | 0.79 | 0.74 | 0.80 |
Fish | 0.09 | 0.97 | 0.90 | 0.59 |
Fruit | 1.52 | 0.21 | 0.99 | 0.46 |
Meat | 0.41 | 0.72 | 0.58 | 0.95 |
Nuts and legumes | 0.18 | 0.90 | 0.73 | 0.83 |
Ratio of MUFA to saturated fatty acids | 0.28 | 0.81 | 0.74 | 0.84 |
Vegetable | 1.22 | 0.24 | 1.44 | 0.07 |
Whole grain | 2.75 | 0.09 | 1.01 | 0.46 |
Dietary variable | Fecal SCFA | Pearson correlation | P value |
---|---|---|---|
Total energy (kcal/d) | Acetate | −0.23 | 0.33 |
Butyrate | −0.24 | 0.30 | |
Propionate | −0.19 | 0.43 | |
Total carbohydrate (g/d) | Acetate | –0.25 | 0.29 |
Butyrate | –0.31 | 0.18 | |
Propionate | –0.26 | 0.27 | |
% of calories from carbohydrate | Acetate | –0.23 | 0.32 |
Butyrate | –0.33 | 0.15 | |
Propionate | –0.33 | 0.14 | |
Total protein (g/d) | Acetate | –0.28 | 0.22 |
Butyrate | –0.24 | 0.30 | |
Propionate | –0.19 | 0.41 | |
% of calories from protein | Acetate | –0.07 | 0.32 |
Butyrate | –0.02 | 0.93 | |
Propionate | –0.06 | 0.79 | |
Total fat (g/d) | Acetate | –0.05 | 0.82 |
Butyrate | –0.05 | 0.82 | |
Propionate | –0.01 | 0.97 | |
% of calories from fat | Acetate | 0.46 | 0.04 |
Butyrate | 0.50 | 0.03 | |
Propionate | 0.52 | 0.02 | |
Total monounsaturated fatty acids (g/d) | Acetate | 0.01 | 0.96 |
Butyrate | 0.01 | 0.97 | |
Propionate | 0.06 | 0.79 | |
Total polyunsaturated fatty acids (g/d) | Acetate | –0.03 | 0.89 |
Butyrate | –0.02 | 0.93 | |
Propionate | 0.06 | 0.79 | |
n-3 Fatty acids (g/d) | Acetate | –0.02 | 0.94 |
Butyrate | 0.07 | 0.77 | |
Propionate | 0.01 | 0.96 | |
18:2 Total linoleic acid | Acetate | –0.03 | 0.89 |
Butyrate | –0.03 | 0.89 | |
Propionate | 0.06 | 0.79 | |
18:3 Total linolenic acid | Acetate | –0.01 | 0.98 |
Butyrate | 0.08 | 0.75 | |
Propionate | 0.05 | 0.83 | |
18:3 Alpha-linolenic acid | Acetate | –0.01 | 0.99 |
Butyrate | 0.08 | 0.74 | |
Propionate | 0.05 | 0.83 | |
Total dietary fiber (g/d) | Acetate | –0.09 | 0.70 |
Butyrate | –0.15 | 0.52 | |
Propionate | –0.06 | 0.79 | |
Insoluble fiber (g/d) | Acetate | –0.04 | 0.88 |
Butyrate | –0.08 | 0.72 | |
Propionate | 0.01 | 0.97 | |
Soluble fiber (g/d) | Acetate | –0.20 | 0.40 |
Butyrate | –0.27 | 0.24 | |
Propionate | –0.22 | 0.34 | |
Pectins (g/d) | Acetate | 0.13 | 0.57 |
Butyrate | 0.03 | 0.89 | |
Propionate | 0.01 | 0.56 | |
Total sugar (g/d) | Acetate | –0.16 | 0.50 |
Butyrate | –0.29 | 0.22 | |
Propionate | –0.24 | 0.31 | |
MDS total score | Acetate | –0.40 | 0.08 |
Butyrate | –0.40 | 0.08 | |
Propionate | –0.28 | 0.23 | |
HEI-2015 total score | Acetate | 0.42 | 0.06 |
Butyrate | 0.24 | 0.31 | |
Propionate | 0.42 | 0.07 |

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Supplementary materials: Tables 3, 5, and 7 and Figure 1 are available at www.jandonline.org
STATEMENT OF POTENTIAL CONFLICT OF INTEREST No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
FUNDING/SUPPORT This work was supported by the University of Massachusetts (UMASS) Lowell internal Seed Grants. Additional funding was provided to A. Maldonado-Contreras by the Faculty Diversity Scholar Program at UMASS Medical School. S. E. Noel is supported by a National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases grant No. 5K01AR067894-05.