Abstract
Attention to the role of n-3 long-chain fatty acids in human health and disease has
been continuously increased during recent decades. Many clinical and epidemiologic
studies have shown positive roles for n-3 fatty acids in infant development; cancer;
cardiovascular diseases; and more recently, in various mental illnesses, including
depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dementia. These fatty acids
are known to have pleiotropic effects, including effects against inflammation, platelet
aggregation, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. These beneficial effects may be mediated
through several distinct mechanisms, including alterations in cell membrane composition
and function, gene expression, or eicosanoid production. A number of authorities have
recently recommended increases in intakes of n-3 fatty acids by the general population.
To comply with this recommendation a variety of food products, most notably eggs,
yogurt, milk, and spreads have been enriched with these fatty acids. Ongoing research
will further determine the tissue distribution, biological effects, cost-effectiveness,
and consumer acceptability of such enriched products. Furthermore, additional controlled
clinical trials are needed to document whether long-term consumption or supplementation
with eicosapentaenoic acid/docosahexaenoic acid or the plant-derived counterpart (α-linolenic
acid) results in better quality of life.
To read this article in full you will need to make a payment
Purchase one-time access:
Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online accessOne-time access price info
- For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
- For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'
Subscribe:
Subscribe to Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and DieteticsAlready a print subscriber? Claim online access
Already an online subscriber? Sign in
Register: Create an account
Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect
References
- External cod liver oil therapy in infantile and atopic eczema.N Y State J Med. 1960; 60: 2863-2868
- The effect of dietary marine fish oils on the serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic chickens.Can J Biochem Physiol. 1960; 38: 19-24
- A new dietary regimen for arthritis: Value of cod liver oil on a fasting stomach.J Natl Med Assoc. 1959; 51: 266-270
- Early experiences with fish oils: a retrospect.Nutr Rev. 1955; 13: 65
- The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease.N Engl J Med. 1985; 312: 1205-1209
- Epidemiological studies in the Upernavik district, Greenland.Acta Med Scand. 1980; 208: 401-406
- Effects of docosahexaenoic acid on vascular pathology and reactivity in hypertension.Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2003; 228: 299-307
- n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and obesity-related disease.Proc Nutr Soc. 2003; 62: 447-453
- Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases.J Am Coll Nutr. 2002; 21: 495-505
- The role of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease.Drugs Today. 2001; 37: 49-56
- Effect of dietary α-linolenic acid on thrombotic risk factors in vegetarian men.Am J Clin Nutr. 1999; 69: 872-882
- Dietary supplementation with fish oil rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with bronchial asthma.Eur Respir J. 2000; 16: 861-865
- Beneficial effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in the management of systemic lupus erythematosus and its relationship to the cytokine network.Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1994; 51: 207-213
- Effect of dietary advice and n-3 supplementation in newly diagnosed MS patients.Acta Neurol Scand. 2000; 102: 143-149
- A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain.Pain. 2007; 129: 210-223
- Potential role of dietary n-3 fatty acids in the prevention of dementia and macular degeneration.Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 83: 1494-1498
- Effects of n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation.Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 83: 1452S-1457S
- Effect of lipids extracted from a salted herring roe food product on maze-behavior in mice.J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2006; 52: 451-456
- ω-3 fatty acid treatment in 174 patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: OmegAD Study.Arch Neurol. 2006; 63: 1402-1408
- Dietary n-3 fatty acids decrease osteoclastogenesis and loss of bone mass in ovariectomized mice.J Bone Miner Res. 2003; 18: 1206-1216
- Relationship between fat cell size and number and fatty acid composition in adipose tissue from different fat depots in overweight/obese humans.Int J Obes (Lond). 2006; 30: 899-905
- Fat, fish, fish oil and cancer.Br J Cancer. 1996; 74: 159-164
- A dose-ranging study of the effects of ethyl-eicosapentaenoate in patients with ongoing depression despite apparently adequate treatment with standard drugs.Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002; 59: 913-919
- Effects of altering dietary fatty acid composition on prostaglandin synthesis and fertility.Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1999; 61: 275-287
- Enrichment of spreadable fats with polyunsaturated fatty acids omega-3 using fish oil.Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2001; 52: 469-476
- Relationship between fatty acid accretion, membrane composition, and biologic functions.J Pediatr. 1994; 125: S25-S32
- Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease.Am J Clin Nutr. 1999; 70: 560S-569S
- Cytokine secretion and eicosanoid production in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients undergoing dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.J Neuroimmunol. 1995; 56: 143-153
- Inflammation.in: Rubin E. Gorstein F. Rubin R. Schwarting R. Strayer D. Pathology: Clinicopathologic Foundations of Medicine. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA2005
- The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids.Biomed Pharmacother. 2002; 56: 365-379
- Intrauterine fatty acid accretion rates in human brain: Implications for fatty acid requirements.Early Hum Dev. 1980; 4: 121-129
- Extrauterine fatty acid accretion rates in human brain: Implications for fatty acid requirements.Early Hum Dev. 1980; 4: 131-138
- Are human milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed term infants?.J Pediatr. 2001; 139: 532-538
- Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.J Pediatr. 2003; 143: S1-S8
- Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation: Effect on visual acuity and n-3 fatty acid content of infant erythrocytes.Lipids. 2004; 39: 195-206
- Effects of fish-oil and folate supplementation of pregnant women on maternal and fetal plasma concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid: A European randomized multicenter trial.Am J Clin Nutr. 2007; 85: 1392-1400
- Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy: The NUHEAL trial.Adv Exp Med Biol. 2005; 569: 109-113
- Visual function in breast-fed term infants weaned to formula with or without long-chain polyunsaturates at 4 to 6 months: A randomized clinical trial.J Pediatr. 2003; 142: 669-677
- A randomized controlled trial of early dietary supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and mental development in term infants.Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000; 42: 174-181
- Cognitive assessment at 2 ½ years following fish oil supplementation in pregnancy: A randomized controlled trial.Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2008; 93: F45-F50
- Visual, cognitive, and language assessments at 39 months: A follow-up study of children fed formulas containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to 1 year of age.Pediatrics. 2003; 112: 177-183
- Ross Preterm Lipid Study.Pediatrics. 2001; 108: 359-371
- Can prenatal n-3 fatty acid deficiency be completely reversed after birth?.Pediatr Res. 2005; 58: 865-872
- Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function?.Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 82: 281-295
- Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and fetal accretion.Br J Nutr. 2003; 90: 135-145
- Supplementation of n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation reduces maternal plasma lipid levels and provides DHA to the infants.J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2006; 19: 397-406
- Supplementing lactating women with flaxseed oil does not increase docosahexaenoic acid in their milk.Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 77: 226-233
- Fatty acids, lipids and health studies.(International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids Web site) (Accessed July 31, 2007)
- The roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy, lactation and infancy: Review of current knowledge and consensus recommendations.J Perinatal Med. 2008; 36: 5-14
- The effects of fish oil supplementation in pregnancy on breast milk fatty acid composition over the course of lactation: a randomized controlled trial.Pediatr Res. 2007; 62: 689-694
- Intakes of essential n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among pregnant Canadian women.Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 77: 473
- Directly quantitated dietary (n-3) fatty acid intakes of pregnant Canadian women are lower than current dietary recommendations.J Nutr. 2005; 135: 206
- Essential n-3 fatty acids in pregnant women and early visual acuity maturation in term infants.Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 87: 548-557
- Beneficial effects of a polyunsaturated fatty acid on infant development: Evidence from the inuit of arctic Quebec.J Pediatr. 2008; 152: 356-364
- The oxidant stress hypothesis of atherogenesis.Lipids. 2001; 36: S41-S44
- Purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids have differential effects on serum lipids and lipoproteins, LDL particle size, glucose, and insulin in mildly hyperlipidemic men.Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 71: 1085-1094
- Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but divergent effects on serum fatty acids.Am J Clin Nutr. 1997; 66: 649-659
- The triglyceride-lowering effects of a modest dose of docosahexaenoic acid alone vs in combination with low dose eicosapentaenoic acid alone versus in combination with low dose eicosapentaenoic acid in patients with coronary artery disease and elevated triglycerides.J Am Coll Nutr. 2006; 25: 480-485
- Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003; 23: 20-30
- Mechanisms for the hypotriglyceridemic effect of marine omega-3 fatty acids.Am J Cardiol. 2006; 98: 27i-33i
- Improvement of coronary vasomotion with eicosapentaenoic acid does not inhibit acetylcholine-induced coronary vasospasm in patients with variant angina.Jap Circ J. 1995; 59: 608-616
- Influence of an algal triacylglycerol containing docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-6) on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy men and women.Br J Nutr. 2006; 95: 525-531
- Effect of pravastatin and omega-3 fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidemia.Arterioscler Thromb. 1993; 13: 1755-1762
- Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation improves fasting and postprandial lipid profiles in hypertriglyceridemic men.Am J Clin Nutr. 2007; 86: 324-333
- Combination of phytosterols and omega-3 fatty acids: Potential strategy to promote cardiovascular health.Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2004; 2: 1-12
- Effects of alpha-linolenic acid vs those of EPA/DHA on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy elderly subjects.Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006; 60: 978-984
- An omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrate increases plasma high-density lipoprotein 2 cholesterol and paraoxonase levels in patients with familial combined hyperlipidemia.Metabolism. 2004; 53: 153-158
- alpha-Linolenic acid- and docosahexaenoic acid-enriched eggs from hens fed flaxseed: Influence on blood lipids and platelet phospholipid fatty acids in humans.Am J Clin Nutr. 1995; 62: 81-86
- n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease.Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 83: 1477S-1482S
- Docosahexaenoic acid restores endothelial function in children with hyperlipidemia: results from the EARLY study.Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2004; 42: 672-679
- Atherosclerosis.Nature. 2000; 407;: 233-241
- Inflammation as a cardiovascular risk factor.Circulation. 2004; 109: II2-II10
- Atherosclerosis—an inflammatory disease.N Eng J Med. 1999; 340: 115-126
- The effect on human tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin1 β production of diets enriched in n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oil or fish oil.Am J Clin Nutr. 1996; 63: 116-122
- The effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the synthesis of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor by mononuclear cells.N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 265-271
- Effect of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on oxidative stress and inflammatory markers, in treated-hypertensive type 2 diabetic subjects.Free Rad Biol Med. 2003; 35: 772-781
- A dietary supplement attenuates IL-6 and CRP after eccentric exercise in untrained males.Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003; 35: 2032-2037
- Very long chain n-3 fatty acids intake and carotid atherosclerosis: An epidemiological study evaluated by ultrasonography.Atherosclerosis. 2004; 176: 145-149
- Higher plasma docosahexaenoic acid is associated with reduced progression of coronary atherosclerosis in women with CAD.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 2814-2819
- Dietary intervention with oil rich fish reduces platelet-monocyte aggregation in man.Atherosclerosis. 2008; 197: 290-296
- Fish, n-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular haemodynamics.J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown). 2007; 8: S23-S26
- Fish diet, fish oil and docosahexaenoic acid rich oil lower fasting and postprandial plasma lipid levels.Eur J Clin Nutr. 1996; 50: 765-771
- Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in humans.Hypertension. 1999; 34: 253-260
- Effects of purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on glycemic control, blood pressure, and serum lipids in type 2 diabetic patients with treated hypertension.Am J Clin Nutr. 2002; 76: 1007-1015
- Lack of effect of fish oil supplementation on blood pressure in treated hypertensives.J Hypertens. 1990; 34: 943-949
- Influence of alpha-linolenic acid and fish-oil on markers of cardiovascular risk in subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype.Atherosclerosis. 2005; 181: 115-124
- Omega-3 fatty acids: Their beneficial role in cardiovascular health.Can Fam Physician. 2006; 52: 734-740
- Fish—Food to calm the heart.N Engl J Med. 2002; 346: 1102-1103
- n-3 fatty acids and the immune system in autoimmunity.Isr Med Assoc J. 2002; 4: 34-38
- Effect of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the inducibility of ventricular tachycardia in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy.Am J Cardiol. 2008; 101: 758-761
- Acute administration of fish oil inhibits triggered activity in isolated myocytes from rabbits and patients with heart failure.Circulation. 2008; 117: 536-544
- Dietary fish and omega-3 fatty acid consumption and heart rate variability in US adults.Circulation. 2008; 117: 1130-1137
- Cardiovascular and endothelial effects of fish oil supplementation in healthy volunteers.J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2007; 12: 213-219
- Lipid in cancer: An introduction.J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1992; 27: 791-792
- Dietary Fat and Colon Cancer: Modulation of cyclooxygenase-2 by types and amount of dietary fat during the postinitiation stage of colon carcinogenesis.Cancer Res. 1997; 57: 3465-3470
- Meat, fish and fat intake in relation to subsite-specific risk colorectal cancer: The Fukuoka Colorectal Cancer Study.Cancer Sci. 2007; 98: 590-597
- Dietary fatty acids and colorectal cancer: A case-control study.Am J Epidemiol. 2007; 166: 181-195
- Risk of colorectal cancer is linked to erythrocyte compositions of fatty acids as biomarkers for dietary intakes of fish, fat, and fatty acids.Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006; 15: 1791-1798
- Breast cancer risk and erythrocyte compositions of n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids in Japanese.Int J Cancer. 2007; 121: 377-385
- Dietary factors and risk of colon cancer.Ann Med. 1994; 26: 443-452
- The causes and prevention of cancer.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1995; 92: 5258-5265
- Dietary long chain n-3 fatty acids for the prevention of cancer: A review of potential mechanisms.Am J Clin Nutr. 2004; 79: 935-945
- Opposing effects of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on pancreatic cancer growth.Pancreas. 2008; 36: 353-362
- Are the olive oil and other dietary lipids related to cancer?.Clin Transl Oncol. 2006; 8: 868-883
- Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) reduces crypt cell proliferation and increases apoptosis in normal colonic mucosa in subjects with a history of colorectal adenomas.Int J Colorectal Dis. 2007; 22: 765-776
- Impact of postoperative omega-3 fatty acid-supplemented parenteral nutrition on clinical outcomes and immunomodulations in colorectal cancer patients.World J Gastroenterol. 2008; 14: 2434-2439
- Effects of high fat fish oil and high fat corn oil diets on initiation of AOM-induced colonic aberrant crypt foci in male F344 rats.Food Chem Toxicol. 2003; 41: 1739-1747
- Fatty acids and exercise affect glucose transport but not tumour growth in F-344 rats.Can J Appl Physiol. 2004; 29: 604-622
- Highly unsaturated (n-3) fatty acids, but not alpha-linolenic, conjugated linoleic or gamma-linolenic acids, reduce tumorigenesis in Apc(Min/+) mice.J Nutr. 2000; 130: 2434-2443
- Dietary docosahexaenoic acid suppresses N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rats more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid.Nutr Cancer. 2003; 45: 211-217
- Nutrition in brain development and aging: role of essential fatty acids.Nutr Rev. 2006; 64: S24-S33
- DHA-rich phospholipids optimize G-protein-coupled signaling.J Pediatr. 2003; 143: S80-S86
- Essential fatty acids and their metabolites in signal transduction.Biochem Soc Trans. 1990; 18: 785-786
- The modification of mammalian membrane polyunsaturated fatty acid composition in relation to membrane fluidity and function.Biochim Biophys Acta. 1984; 779: 89-137
- Dietary fatty acids and membrane protein function.J Nutr Biochem. 1990; 1: 68-79
- Fatty acids differentially affect serotonin receptor and transporter binding in the rat brain.Neuroscience. 2006; 139: 1397-1403
- Essential fatty acids, lipid membrane abnormalities and the diagnosis and treatment of schizophrenia.Biol Psychiatry. 2000; 47: 8-21
- Gene targets related to phospholipids and fatty acid metabolism in schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders: An update.Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2000; 63: 47-59
- Inhibitory effects of omega-3 fatty acids on protein kinase C activity in vitro.Mol Psychiatry. 2001; 6: 246-248
- Omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of psychiatric disorders.Drugs. 2005; 65: 1051-1059
- Red blood cell membrane dynamics in schizophrenia.Schizophr Res. 1994; 13: 217-226
- Fish consumption and depression: The Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort study.J Affect Disord. 2004; 82: 447-452
- Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in the diet and in red blood cell membranes of depressed patients.J Affect Disord. 1998; 48: 149-155
- Omega-3 fatty acids in ADHD and related neurodevelopmental disorders.Int Rev Psychiatry. 2006; 18: 155-172
- Essential fatty acids and the brain.Can J Psychiatry. 2003; 48: 195-203
- The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: A systematic review and metaregression analysis.Am J Psychiatry. 2007; 164: 942-948
- The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163: 716-723
- Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990-2020: Global burden of disease study.Lancet. 1997; 349: 1498-1504
- Fatty acid status and behavioural symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: A case-control study.Nutr J. 2008; 7: 8
- EFA supplementation in children with inattention, hyperactivity, and other disruptive behaviors.Lipids. 2003; 38: 1007-1021
- Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-containing food administration on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder—A placebo-controlled double-blind study.Eur J Clin Nutr. 2004; 58: 467-473
- A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.J Pediatr. 2001; 139: 189-196
- Depression and cardiovascular mortality: A role for n-3 fatty acids?.Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 84: 1513-1517
- Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder: A preliminary double-blind, placebo controlled trial.Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2003; 13: 267-271
- Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with recurrent self-harm.Br J Psychiatry. 2007; 190: 118-122
- Omega-3 treatment of childhood depression: A controlled, double-blind pilot study.Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163: 1098-1100
- Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials of ethyl-eicosapentanoate in the treatment of bipolar depression and rapid cycling bipolar disorder.Biol Psychiatry. 2006; 60: 1020-1022
- Omega-3 fatty acids as treatment for perinatal depression: Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial.Aust N Z Psychiatry. 2008; 42: 199-205
- Omega-3 fatty acids and supportive psychotherapy for perinatal depression: A randomized placebo-controlled study.J Affect Disord. 2008; 110: 142-148
- Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: Association with education.BMJ. 1995; 310: 970-973
- An Aging World: 2001.US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC2001 (US Census Bureau Series P95/01-1)
- Fatty acid intake and the risk of dementia and cognitive decline: A review of clinical and epidemiological studies.J Nutr Health Aging. 2000; 4: 202-207
- Inflammation in neurodegenerative disease.Arch Neurol. 2000; 57: 786-788
- Dietary intake of fatty acids and fish in relation to cognitive performance at middle age.Neurology. 2004; 62: 275-280
- Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: The Framingham heart study.Arch Neurol. 2006; 63: 1545-1550
- Diet and risk of dementia: Does fat matter?.Neurology. 2002; 59: 1915-1921
- Dietary supplementation of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids improves cognitive dysfunction.Neurosci Res. 2006; 56: 159-164
- Ethyl-EPA in Alzheimer's disease-a pilot study.Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2004; 71: 341-346
- n-3 Fatty acid erythrocyte membrane content, APOE varepsilon, and cognitive variation: An observational follow-up study in late adulthood.Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 87: 449-454
- Cognitive change and the APOE epsilon 4 allele.Nature. 2002; 418: 932
- A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain.Pain. 2007; 129: 210-223
- Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and islet autoimmunity in children at increased risk for type 1 diabetes.JAMA. 2007; 298: 1420-1428
- Sperm fatty acid composition in subfertile men.Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006; 75: 75-79
- A randomized trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during the third trimester of pregnancy.Obstet Gynecol. 2003; 101: 469-479
- Low consumption of seafood in early pregnancy as risk factor for preterm delivery: Prospective cohort study.BMJ. 2002; 324: 447
- Photoprotective and anti-skin-aging effects of eicosapentaenoic acid in human skin in vivo.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 921-930
- Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on heart rate in cardiac transplant recipients.Am J Cardiol. 2006; 98: 1393-1395
- Fish intake, contaminants, and human health: Evaluating the risks and the benefits.JAMA. 2006; 296: 1885-1899
- Increased levels of mercury associated with high fish intakes among children from Vancouver, Canada.J Pediatr. 2006; 148: 759-763
- What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish. Food and Drug Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC2004 (Publication No. EPA-823-R-04-005)
- Measurement of mercury levels in concentrated over-the-counter fish oil preparations: Is fish oil healthier than fish?.Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2003; 127: 1603-1605
- Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women.Pediatrics. 2001; 108: E82
- Consumer advisory: An important message for pregnant women and women of childbearing age who may become pregnant about the risks of mercury in fish.(US Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Web site)http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/∼dms/admehg.html(Accessed May 7, 2008)Date: March 2001
- Expert opinion: Omega-3 fatty acids and bleeding—Cause for concern?.Am J Cardiol. 2007; 99: 44C-46C
- Safety considerations with omega-3 fatty acid therapy.Am J Cardiol. 2007; 99: 35C-43C
- Extremely limited synthesis of long chain polyunsaturates in adults: Implications for their dietary essentiality and use as supplements.Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007; 32: 619-634
- Designer eggs: from improvement of egg composition to functional food.Trends Food Sci Technol. 2001; 12: 7-16
- Designer eggs: Best way to get your omega-3 fatty acids?.Consum Rep. 2004; 69: 45
- Lipid responses in mildly hypertriglyceridemic men and women to consumption of docosahexaenoic acid-enriched eggs.Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2003; 73: 357-368
- α-Linolenic acid- and docosahexaenoic acid-enriched eggs from hens fed flaxseed: Influence on blood lipids and platelet phospholipid fatty acids in humans.Am J Clin Nutr. 1995; 62: 81-86
- Enrichment of eggs with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Effects of vitamin E supplementation.Lipids. 2001; 36: 833-838
- Effects of milk enriched with omega-3 fatty acid, oleic acid, and folic acid in patients with metabolic syndrome.Clin Nutr. 2006; 25: 581-587
- Cardiovascular effects of milk enriched with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid, folic acid, and vitamins E and B6 in volunteers with mild hyperlipidemia.Nutrition. 2004; 20: 521-527
- n-3 fatty acid enrichment of edible tissue of poultry: A review.Lipids. 2005; 40: 121-130
- Chemical and sensory analysis of strawberry flavoured yogurt supplemented with an algae oil emulsion.J Dairy Res. 2005; 72: 311-316
- Generation of cloned transgenic pigs rich in omega-3 fatty acids.Nat Biotech. 2006; 24: 435-437
- Effects of altering dietary fatty acid composition on prostaglandin synthesis and fertility.Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1999; 61: 275-287
- Advances in dietary enrichment with n-3 fatty acids.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2008; 48: 402-410
Biography
N. D. Riediger and R. Othman are graduate students, Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba and Canadian Centre for Agri-food Research in Medicine, St Boniface Hospital Research Centre, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
Biography
M. Suh is an assistant professor, Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba and Canadian Centre for Agri-food Research in Medicine, St Boniface Hospital Research Centre, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
Biography
M. H. Moghadasian is an associate professor, Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba and Canadian Centre for Agri-food Research in Medicine, St Boniface Hospital Research Centre, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Article info
Publication history
Accepted:
October 3,
2008
Footnotes
Meets Learning Need Codes 2000, 2070, 4000, and 9000. To take the Continuing Professional Education quiz for this article, log in to ADA's Online Business Center at www.eatright.org/obc, click the “Journal Article Quiz” button, click “Additional Journal CPE Articles,” and select this article's title from a list of available quizzes.
Identification
Copyright
© 2009 American Dietetic Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
