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Research Article| Volume 100, ISSUE 6, P637-640, June 2000

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Dietary Reference Intakes for The Antioxidant Nutrients

Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(00)00189-9
Dietary Reference Intakes for The Antioxidant Nutrients
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      The anticipated report by the Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds (Figure) was released mid-April of this year with publication delivery in May. The report adds Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) and Upper Tolerable Intake Levels (UL) for vitamins C and E and selenium to the nutrients for which DRI and UL values have been previously set. Currently, the list of 17 DRI nutrients (Table 1) includes 3 macrominerals (calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium), 2 microminerals (fluoride and selenium), 10 water-soluble vitamins (9 B vitamins and vitamin C), and 2 fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins D and E). There are 6 other nutrients for which the 1989 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) will continue to stand (Table 2) until revised—namely protein, 2 fat-soluble vitamins (A and K), and 3 microminerals (iron, zinc, and iodine).
      Figure thumbnail gr1
      Figure
      Table 1Dietary Reference Intakes: recommended intakes for individuals
      Life stage group Calcium (mg/d) Phosphorus (mg/d) Magnesium (mg/d) Vitamin D (μg/d)
      As cholecalciferol. 1 μg cholecalciferol=40 IU vitamin D.
      ln the absence of adequate exposure to sunlight.
      		 Fluoride (mg/d) Thiamin (mg/d) Riboflavin (mg/d) Niacin (mg/d)
      As niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin=60 mg of tryptophan; 0–6 months=preformed niacin (not NE).
      		 Vitamin B6(mg/d) Folate (μg/d)
      As dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE=1 μg food folate=0.6 μg of folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food=0.5 μg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
      		 Vitamin B12(μg/d) Pantothenic Acid (mg/d) Biotin (μg/d) Choline
      Although Als have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages.
      (mg/d)      		 Vitamin C (mg/d) Vitamin E
      As α-tocopherol. α-Tocopherol includes RRR-α-tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-α-tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
      (mg/d)      		 Selenium (μg/d)
      Infants
      0–6 mo 210*
      This table presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life-stage and gender groups is believed to cover needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
      		 100* 30* 5* 0.01* 0.2* 0.3* 2* 0.1* 65* 0.4* 1.7* 5* 125* 40* 4* 15*
      7–12 mo 270* 275* 75* 5* 0.5* 0.3* 0.4* 4* 0.3* 80* 0.5* 1.8* 6* 150* 50* 6* 20*
      Children
      1–3 y 500* 460 80 5* 0.7* 0.5 0.5 6 0.5 150 0.9 2* 8* 200* 15 6 20
      4–8 y 800* 500 130 5* 1* 0.6 0.6 8 0.6 200 1.2 3* 12* 250* 25 7 30
      Males
      9–13 y 1,300* 1,250 240 5* 2* 0.9 0.9 12 1.0 300 1.8 4* 20* 375* 45 11 40
      14–18 y 1,300* 1,250 410 5* 3* 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 25* 550* 75 15 55
      19–30 y 1,000* 700 400 5* 4* 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 30* 550* 90 15 55
      31–50 y 1,000* 700 420 5* 4* 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 30* 550* 90 15 55
      51–70 y 1,200* 700 420 10* 4* 1.2 1.3 16 1.7 400 2.4
      Because 10 to 30% of older people may malabsorb food-bound Vitamin B-12, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with Vitamin B-12 or a supplement containing Vitamin B-12.
      		 5* 30* 550* 90 15 55
      >70 y 1,200* 700 420 15* 4* 1.2 1.3 16 1.7 400 2.4
      Because 10 to 30% of older people may malabsorb food-bound Vitamin B-12, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with Vitamin B-12 or a supplement containing Vitamin B-12.
      		 5* 30* 550* 90 15 55
      Females
      9–13 y 1,300* 1,250 240 5* 2* 0.9 0.9 12 1.0 300 1.8 4* 20* 375* 45 11 40
      14–18 y 1,300* 1,250 360 5* 3* 1.0 1.0 14 1.2 400
      In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural-tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet.
      		 2.4 5* 25* 400* 65 15 55
      19–30 y 1,000* 700 310 5* 3* 1.1 1.1 14 1.3 400
      In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural-tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet.
      		 2.4 5* 30* 425* 75 15 55
      31–50 y 1,000* 700 320 5* 3* 1.1 1.1 14 1.3 400
      In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural-tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet.
      		 2.4 5* 30* 425* 75 15 55
      51–70 y 1,200* 700 320 10* 3* 1.1 1.1 14 1.5 400 2.4
      Because 10 to 30% of older people may malabsorb food-bound Vitamin B-12, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with Vitamin B-12 or a supplement containing Vitamin B-12.
      		 5* 30* 425* 75 15 55
      >70 y 1,200* 700 320 15* 3* 1.1 1.1 14 1.5 400 2.4
      Because 10 to 30% of older people may malabsorb food-bound Vitamin B-12, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with Vitamin B-12 or a supplement containing Vitamin B-12.
      		 5* 30* 425* 75 15 55
      Pregnancy
      ≤18 y 1,300* 1,250 400 5* 3* 1.4 1.4 18 1.9 600
      It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube.
      		 2.6 6* 30* 450* 80 15 60
      19–30 y 1,000* 700 350 5* 3* 1.4 1.4 18 1.9 600
      It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube.
      		 2.6 6* 30* 450* 85 15 60
      31–50 y 1,000* 700 360 5* 3* 1.4 1.4 18 1.9 600
      It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube.
      		 2.6 6* 30* 450* 85 15 60
      Lactation
      ≤18 y 1,300* 1,250 360 5* 3* 1.4 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550* 115 19 70
      19–30 y 1,000* 700 310 5* 3* 1.4 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550* 120 19 70
      31–50 y 1,000* 700 320 5* 3* 1.4 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550* 120 19 70
      Copyright 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. Reprinted courtesy of the National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
      a As cholecalciferol. 1 μg cholecalciferol=40 IU vitamin D.
      b ln the absence of adequate exposure to sunlight.
      c As niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin=60 mg of tryptophan; 0–6 months=preformed niacin (not NE).
      d As dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE=1 μg food folate=0.6 μg of folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food=0.5 μg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
      e Although Als have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages.
      f As α-tocopherol. α-Tocopherol includes RRR-α-tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-α-tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements.
      g Because 10 to 30% of older people may malabsorb food-bound Vitamin B-12, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with Vitamin B-12 or a supplement containing Vitamin B-12.
      h In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural-tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet.
      i It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube.
      1 This table presents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life-stage and gender groups is believed to cover needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
      Table 2Recommended dietary allowances
      The allowances, expressed as average daily intakes over time, are intended to provide for individual variations among most normal persons as they live in the United States under usual environmental stresses. Diets should be based on a variety of common foods in order to provide other nutrients for which human requirements have been less well defined.
      revised 1989 (abridged) designed for the maintenance of good nutrition of practically all healthy people in the United States
      This table does not include nutrients for which Dietary Reference Intakes have recently been established (see Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride [1997], Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline [1998], and Dietary Reference ntakes for Vitamin E, Vitamin C, Selenium, and Carotenoids [2000]).
      Category Age (years) or condition Weight
      Weights and heights of Reference Adults are actual medians for the US population of the designated age, as reported by NHANES II. The median weights and heights of those under 19 years of age were taken from Hamill et al (1979). The use of these figures does not imply that the height-to-weight ratios are ideal.
      		 Height
      Weights and heights of Reference Adults are actual medians for the US population of the designated age, as reported by NHANES II. The median weights and heights of those under 19 years of age were taken from Hamill et al (1979). The use of these figures does not imply that the height-to-weight ratios are ideal.
      		 Protein Vitamin A Vitamin K Iron Zinc Iodine
      (kg) (Ib) (cm) (in) (g) (μg RE)
      Retinol equivalents 1 retinol equivalent=1μg retinol or 6μg β-carotene.
      		 (μg) (mg) (mg) (μg)
      Infants 0.0-0.5 6 13 60 24 13 375 5 6 5 40
      0.5-1.0 9 20 71 28 14 375 10 10 5 50
      Children 1-3 13 29 90 35 16 400 15 10 10 70
      4-6 20 44 112 44 24 500 20 10 10 90
      7-10 28 62 132 52 28 700 30 10 10 120
      Males 11-14 45 99 157 62 45 1,000 45 12 15 150
      15-18 66 145 176 69 59 1,000 65 12 15 150
      19-24 72 160 177 70 58 1,000 70 10 15 150
      25-50 79 174 176 70 63 1,000 80 10 15 150
      51+ 77 170 173 68 63 1,000 80 10 15 150
      Females 11-14 46 101 157 62 46 800 45 15 12 150
      15-18 55 120 163 64 44 800 55 15 12 150
      19-24 58 128 164 65 46 800 60 15 12 150
      25-50 63 138 163 64 50 800 65 15 12 150
      51+ 65 143 160 63 50 800 65 10 12 150
      Pregnant ' 60 800 65 30 15 175
      Lactating 1st 6 months 65 1,300 65 15 19 200
      2nd 6 months 62 1,200 65 15 16 200
      Copyright 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. Reprinted courtesy of the National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
      a The allowances, expressed as average daily intakes over time, are intended to provide for individual variations among most normal persons as they live in the United States under usual environmental stresses. Diets should be based on a variety of common foods in order to provide other nutrients for which human requirements have been less well defined.
      b Weights and heights of Reference Adults are actual medians for the US population of the designated age, as reported by NHANES II. The median weights and heights of those under 19 years of age were taken from Hamill et al (1979). The use of these figures does not imply that the height-to-weight ratios are ideal.
      c Retinol equivalents 1 retinol equivalent=1μg retinol or 6μg β-carotene.
      1 This table does not include nutrients for which Dietary Reference Intakes have recently been established (see Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride [1997], Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline [1998], and Dietary Reference ntakes for Vitamin E, Vitamin C, Selenium, and Carotenoids [2000]).
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      DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(00)00189-9

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      © 2000 American Dietetic Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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